Digital identity systems are quickly changing how people all over the world interact with their governments. As they offer convenience and efficiency, they present core challenges related to privacy, security, and trust. Many countries around the world have rolled out digital ID programs, some with great success and wide public support, others with less so. Examining these initiatives provides valuable insights for countries considering similar projects, particularly as artificial intelligence (AI) introduces new challenges and opportunities.
Brazil, Estonia, Japan, India, Nigeria, Singapore, and Pakistan each represent some of the different ways governments have approached digital ID. Every country approaches things differently and has different results. These range from Brazil's planned blockchain-based system to Estonia's long-standing digital ID card and India's massive Aadhaar program. Policymakers can read these case studies to explore and find more innovative solutions. This will enable them to understand the dangers and opportunities that digital identity systems present in the age of AI.
Brazil is really trying to raise the bar with a very ambitious project. It seeks to establish a blockchain-based digital ID infrastructure for its over 214 million residents. Taking this step to use blockchain technology is a strong statement of intent to adopt the highest standards of security and transparency in managing citizens’ identities. The government believes that this new solution will consolidate multiple public services under one system and provide unique data across multiple agencies to better serve constituents.
Estonia has long been at the forefront of digital identity, issuing digital ID cards at birth that include biometric data. The country’s digital ID program is largely seen as non-controversial within Estonia. This is attributed to a high level of trust in the Estonian government and the long-standing nature of the Digital ID program.
Estonia's government estimates that in the first twenty years of the program, over 800 million digital signatures were given through the ID card. Additionally, because of the way Estonia’s online platform is structured, citizens can effortlessly track if anyone has viewed their information. This degree of transparency goes a long way to building public trust.
Japan’s digitized My Number ID card has had a rough go. In December 2024 it officially superseded health insurance cards, but this wasn’t accomplished without problems. In fact, there have been more than 7400 reported instances of My Number ID being connected to incorrect health data. These errors have led to questions about the accuracy of the data being collected and about the reliability of the system as a whole.
India’s Aadhaar program is one of the world’s largest and most controversial digital ID programs. As of the end of July 2024, more than 1.38 billion Aadhaar numbers have been generated, now accounting for more than 96% of the country’s population. Two-factor authentication is built into Aadhaar usage, and the ID itself is not available to police.
Sadly, safety and privacy issues with the centralized data have been an ongoing worry.
95% of adults use Aadhar at least once a month, with 90% of them being “somewhat or very satisfied with the program.” - [anderson-review.ucla.edu]
In February 2025, the Indian government began allowing private companies access to Aadhaar's face recognition technology, raising further privacy concerns.
There have been relatively few studies that critically analyze the security shortcomings of Aadhaar, the centralized nature of demographic and biometric data, alongside minimal additional security measures, is seen as the most significant cause for concern. - [sciencedirect.com]
It's important to note that the Supreme Court has placed some restrictions on Aadhaar's use.
Nigeria, too, is rallying forward with plans to develop its digital identity infrastructure. The National Identification Number (NIN) has become a prerequisite for a majority of transactions in Nigeria.
While India’s Supreme Court ruled in 2016 that Aadhaar cannot be mandatory - [adityabirlacapital.com]
The NIN’s objective is to enhance governance and law enforcement.
As highlighted in the NIMC Act of 2007, the National Identification Number (NIN) is mandatory for most transactions in Nigeria. Every citizen and legal resident is expected to enrol and obtain his or hers. - [nimc.gov.ng]
In January 2025, Nigeria announced that it will be launching a biometric-backed version of the NIN, called an "improved…three-in-one NIN-linked card with an embedded chip, which can operate online and offline." This upgrade is primarily intended to increase the security and functionality of the NIN ecosystem.
The goal of NIMC was to create a “national system of identifying all citizens in order to accomplish the legitimate business of government – law enforcement, intelligence, social and economic development,” - [sciencedirect.com]
Singapore’s digital ID, Singpass, which was established in 2003, is another example of a mature program. India has largely avoided the political pitfalls of their decentralized distribution model.
Pakistan’s PakID has reached very high adoption rates, with approximately 96% of the population (212 million people) enrolled. Its adoption has been motivated further by linking it to social service programs.
It is currently not entirely decentralized – Singapore’s director of National Digital Identity at the Government Technology (GovTech) agency, Kendrick Lee, refers to Singpass as a “federated ecosystem of somewhat centralized sources,” - [biometricupdate.com]
Brazil’s rollout of digital ID registration has been nothing short of remarkable. As of 2024, over "90% of adults and 96% of children under the age of five" had been registered for gov.br's digital ID. This near-100 percent registration rate provides strong evidence of overwhelming public acceptance and use of the digital ID system.
a significant rise in SingPass accounts for sale in recent years) - [hackread.com]
These varied case studies showcase the challenges of deploying digital identity systems. Underlying public trust, data security, and definitional and legal frameworks will be crucial to the success of these initiatives. Without them, these projects are left to languish in potential failure. As AI increasingly plays a part in how we use and manage our digital identities, these equity considerations become all the more paramount.
While AI has the potential to improve the efficiency and accuracy of digital identity systems, it brings new risks. Additionally, AI-powered facial recognition and biometric analysis can significantly improve identity verification. They also raise pertinent questions about bias and misuse to underscore oppositional narratives. Keeping AI algorithms fair, transparent and accountable will be key to upholding the public’s trust.
Data privacy is the second major issue of concern in this new AI era. Digital identity systems require deeply personal data, collecting enough to be a goldmine for any and all cyberattacks. Securing this data against breaches, hacks, and leaks is a considerable challenge that involves comprehensive security protocols and ongoing monitoring.
Legal frameworks have to keep up with the new digital identity challenges posed by the automated age of AI. Laws and regulations should address fundamental concerns, such as data privacy and algorithmic bias. They need to pay close attention to how AI will be used for identity verification. Without clear legal guidelines, there are no guardrails to ensure digital identity systems are not used to harm or discriminate.
Each of these national programs can provide important examples and insights for other countries. Estonia’s focus on transparency and citizen control of their data has built a lot of trust between citizens and the digital ID system. India’s biometrically controlled Aadhaar program is an extreme example of how large-scale digital inclusion looks. Lastly, it brings into focus the emerging importance of data security and privacy. Japan’s ongoing struggle with the My Number ID card offers a cautionary tale on the need for precision in data gathering. The report calls for robust error correction measures.
Legal frameworks must also adapt to the challenges of digital identity in the AI age. Laws and regulations must address issues such as data privacy, algorithmic bias, and the use of AI in identity verification. Clear legal guidelines are essential for ensuring that digital identity systems are used ethically and responsibly.
Each of these national programs offers valuable lessons for other countries. Estonia's emphasis on transparency and citizen control over their data has fostered trust in the digital ID system. India's Aadhaar program demonstrates the potential for large-scale digital inclusion, but also highlights the importance of data security and privacy. Japan's experience with the My Number ID card underscores the need for accurate data management and robust error correction mechanisms.
